Risk factor and Prevention of Cancer:

The old saying, “An ounce of prevention is better than a pound of cure”, holds true not only for infectious diseases but also for cancer.

Why cancer prevention is important?

Most cancers are lifestyle-related risk factors. In India, tobacco-related cancers account for 48% of the total cancer cases and cervical cancers form the bulk (36%) of cancers in females.

Primary Prevention

Primary prevention refers to a reduced or to eliminate exposure to carcinogens.

Primary prevention includes:

• Compulsory education about tobacco related cancers, unhealthy sexual habits and cancer preventive diet.

Modifiable cancer risk factors:

• Tobacco causes cancers at many sites. Alcohol consumption is associated with oral, oesophageal and other cancers;
• Obesity associated with increased risk of colon, breast and other cancers.
• Balanced mixed diet can prevent several cancers.

Chemoprevention

This includes the use of natural or synthetic substances to reduce the risk of developing cancer or its recurrence.

Eg: Selective oestrogen receptor modulators (tamoxifen), NSAIDs, (COX-2 inhibitors) for colon cancer, Retinoids (cis-retinoic acid) for primary cancers of the head and neck and Finasteride, an alpha-reductase inhibitor that can lower the risk of prostate cancer. Vaccines are used to prevent infection by oncogenic agents against hepatitis B for cancers of liver and Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine for prevention of Cervical Cancer.Genetic testing with BRCA1, 2 has lead to prophylactic oophorectomy and mastectomy for Breast & Ovarian Cancer, prophylactic colectomy in adenomatous polyposis gene mutation.

Diet and Cancer

Diet is one of the aetiological factors in carcinogenesis. Epidemiological studies (study done by Doll and Peto) have shown that 35% of cancers are associated with diet.

Fat present in red meat modifies DNA synthesis, alters the microflora and induces the production of oestrogens, associated with breast and colon cancers.

Micronutrients and cancer

Micronutrients – vitamins and minerals, non-nutrients such as proteins (legumes), monoterpenes (citrus fruits), polyphenoles (tea and spices) and allium (onion and garlic) have protective effects and prevent cancer. They act through metabolic, antioxidant, differentiation and immune modulation.

Dietary recommendations

• Increased intake of vegetables and fruits (minimum of five servings per day)
• Intake of 55% carbohydrates, <30% fats and 20-30g of fibre
• Avoidance of salt-cured and smoked food
• Limitation of alcohol.

Secondary prevention includes screening programmes.

Recommendations for the early detection in asymptomatic persons

Screening programmes are:

• Opportunistic, in which the population seeks medical professionals.
• Organized, in which medical professionals approach the public.

Neurosurgery (or neurological surgery) is the medical specialty concerned with the prevention, diagnosis, treatment, and rehabilitation of disorders which affect any portion of the nervous system including the brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, and extra-cranial cerebrovascular system.

Main divisions of neurosurgery

General neurosurgery involves most neurosurgical conditions including neuro-trauma and other neuro-emergencies such as intracranial hemorrhage. Most level 1 hospitals have this kind of practice.

Specialized branches have developed to cater to special and difficult conditions. These specialized branches co-exist with general neurosurgery in more sophisticated hospitals. To practice these higher specialization within neurosurgery, additional higher fellowship training of 1–2 years is expected from the neurosurgeon. Some of these divisions of neurosurgery are:

1. Vascular and endovascular neurosurgery
2. Stereotactic,functional and epilepsy neurosurgery
3. Oncological neurosurgery
4. Skull-Butt Surgery
5. Spine neurosurgery
6. Peripheral nerve surgery
7. Pediatric neurosurgery

Neuropathology

The pathology confronted by neurosurgeons could be either congenital, acquired, traumatic, due to infection, or neoplastic or degenerative conditions. Conditions like congenital hydrocephalus, pediatric tumors and myelomeningocele are encountered in children. Trauma with head or spine injury and bleeds due to arteriovenous malformation are encountered in young adults. Degenerative spine disease, aneurysm bleeds and Parkinson’s disease are encountered in much older patients. The science of neuropathology is a well developed branch of pathology.

Neuroanesthesia

Neuroanesthesia is a highly developed science that is linked to neurosurgery. This branch of medicine plays a very important part in day-to-day neurosurgery.

Neurosurgery methods

1. Vascular and endovascular neurosurgery.

2. Stereotactic, functional and epilepsy neurosurgery

3. Oncological neurosurgery

4. Skull- Butt surgery

5. Spine neurosurgery

6. Peripheral Nerve surgery

7.Pediatric neurosurgery

 

 

y plays a key role not only in diagnosis but also in the operative phase of neurosurgery.

Neuroradiology methods are used in modern neurosurgery diagnosis and treatment. They include computer assisted imaging computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), positron emission tomography (PET), magnetoencephalography (MEG), and the stereotactic radiosurgery. Some neurosurgery procedures involve the use of intra-operative MRI and functional MRI.

In conventional open surgery the neurosurgeon opens the skull and uses a large opening to access the brain. Techniques of using smaller openings and using microscopes and endoscopes were developed later. With these smaller openings in conjunction with high-clarity microscopic visualization of neural tissue, excellent results can be obtained. However, the open methods are still used in trauma or emergency situations.^{[10] Principles of Neurosurgery-Rengachari, Ellenbogen}, ^{[11] Neurotrauma and Critical Care of the Brain-Jallo, Loftus} .’

Microsurgery is utilized in many aspects of neurological surgery. Microvascular techniques are used in EC-IC by-pass surgery and in restoration carotid endarterectomy. The clipping of an aneurysm is performed under microscopic vision. Minimally invasive spine surgery utilizes microscopes or endoscopes. Procedures such as microdiscectomy, laminectomy, and artificial disc replacement rely on microsurgery.^[5]

Using Stereotaxy neurosurgeons can approach a minute target in the brain through a minimal opening. This is used in functional neurosurgery where electrodes are implanted or gene therapy is instituted with high level of accuracy as in the case of Parkinson’s disease or Alzheimer’s disease. Using the combination method of open and stereotactic surgery, intraventricular hemorrhages can potentially be evacuated successfully.^[6]

Minimally invasive endoscopic surgery is commonly utilized by neurosurgeons when appropriate. Techniques such as endoscopic endonasal surgery are used in pituitary tumors, craniopharyngiomas, chordomas, and the repair of cerebrospinal fluid leaks. Ventricular endoscopy is used in the treatment of intraventricular bleeds, hydrocephalus, colloid cyst and neurocysticercosis. Endonasal endoscopy is at times carried out with neurosurgeons and ENT surgeons working together as a team.

Repair of craniofacial disorders and disturbance of cerebrospinal fluid circulation is done by neurosurgeons who also occasionally team up with maxillofacial and plastic surgeons. Cranioplasty for craniosynostosis is performed by pediatric neurosurgeons with or without plastic surgeons.

Neurosurgeons are involved in Stereotactic Radiosurgery along with Radiation Oncologists in tumor and AVM treatment. Radiosurgical methods such as Gamma knife, Cyberknife and Novalis Shaped Beam Surgery are used as well.

Endovascular Neurosurgery utilize endovascular image guided procedures for the treatment of aneurysms, AVMs, carotid stenosis, strokes, and spinal malformations, and vasospasms. Techniques such as angioplasty, stenting, clot retrieval, embolization, and diagnostic angiography are endovascular procedures.

A common procedure performed in neurosurgery is the placement of Ventriculo-Peritoneal Shunt (VP Shunt). In pediatric practice this is often implemented in cases of congenital hydrocephalus. The most common indication for this procedure in adults is Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus (NPH).

Neurosurgery of the spine covers the cervical, thoracic and lumbar spine. Some indications for spinal coed surgery include spinal cord compression resulting from trauma, arthritis of the spinal discs, or spondylosis. In cervical cord compression, patients may have difficulty with gait, balance issues, and/or numbness and tingling in the hands or feet. Spondylosis is the condition of spinal disc degeneration and arthritis that compresses the spinal canal. This can often result in bone-spurring and disc herniation. Power drills and special instruments are often used to correct any compression problems of the spinal canal. Disk herniations of spinal vertebral discs are removed by Kerrison pitiutary rongeurs. T

his procedure is known aa a discectomy. A laminectomy is the removal of the Lamina portion of the vertebrae of the spine in order to make room for the compressed nerve tissue. Radiology assisted spine surgery is a minimally-invasive procedure and includes the techniques of vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty in which certain types of spinal fractures are managed.

Surgery performed in order to produce spinal analgesia are also often performed by neurosurgeons. Some of these techniques include implantation of deep brain stimulators, spinal cord stimulators and pain pumps.

Surgery of the peripheral nervous system is also possible, and includes the very common procedures of carpal tunnel decompression and peripheral nerve transposition. Numerous other types of nerve entrapment conditions and other problems with the peripheral nervous system are treated as well.

 

 

 

Have a healthy day…

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• Botox™
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• Chemical Peel
• Chin Surgery
• Cosmetic Dentistry
• Dermabrasion
• Eyebrow/Forehead Rejuvenation (Brow Lift)
• Eyelid Surgery (Blepharoplasty)
• Face-lift
• Facial Contouring
• Facial Fillers
• Facial Wrinkles
• Laser Hair Removal
• Laser Resurfacing
• Neck Lift and Neck Liposuction
• Otoplasty (Alterations of the Ears)
• Rhinoplasty (Alterations of the Nose)
• Skin Problems (Blemishes, Spider Veins, Scar Revisions, Tattoo Removal)
• Wrinkle Treatment

The Body

• Abdomen Reduction (Tummy Tuck)
• Arm Lift
• Body Liposuction
• Breast Augmentation
• Breast Lift
• Breast Reduction
• Buttock Lift (Belt Lipectomy)
• Circumferential Body Lift
• Inner Thigh Lift
• Laser Hair Removal

What are the different types of cataracts?

Age-related cataract: Most cataracts are related to aging.

Congenital cataract: Some babies are born with cataracts or develop them in childhood, often in both eyes. These cataracts may not affect vision. If they do, they may need to be removed.

Secondary cataract: Cataracts are more likely to develop in people who have certain other health problems, such as diabetes. Also, cataracts are sometimes linked to steroid use.

Traumatic cataract: Cataracts can develop soon after an eye injury, or years later.

What are the different treatments available?

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State of the Art Technology includes;

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WHITESTAR COLD PHACO Technology of Signature system is clinically proven to produce clearer corneas on post-op day 1. This is one of its types as it can perform Phacoemulsification and Posterior Vitrectomy with the same system.

Nobody knows if innovation is infectious, or can be learnt. But the year 2009 saw a wave of creative, inspired approaches from the nation’s medical fraternity. No, not big bang innovations, but more the Tata Nano variety. With government expenditure on health as a percentage of total health expenditure at 17.9 per cent, one hardly expects the Indian state to play a major role. Nor so much the booming drug companies, who spend 12 to 15 per cent of their outlays on research and 30 per cent on marketing. The true leaders of innovation this year have been the nation’s surgeons.

Successful Twin Hand Transplant at Aims

Abdul Rahim, who successfully underwent the twin hand transplant surgery at the Amrita Hospital, Kochi, with the wife and children of Joseph, the donor, and Dr Subramania Iyer of the AIMS

KOCHI: The Amrita Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Centre (AIMS) has set yet another milestone in organ transplant, with the second successful twin hand transplant.

Recipient of the second twin hand transplant is 30-year-old Abdul Rahim, a former army captain from Kandahar in Afghanistan who lost both his hands during de-mining operations in Kandahar three years ago.

This is the first case of twin-hand transplant on an Afghan citizen. The donor was Joseph, a 54-year-old accident victim from Kerala, who was declared brain dead. Manu, 30, the recipient of the first hand transplant, which was performed four months ago, is recovering well and is doing almost all the routine activities.

Abdul Rahim approached Amrita Institute of Medical Sciences four months ago, after scouting for hand transplant in several countries. The transplant was performed in a ‘marathon’ surgical procedure that lasted for around 15 hours, involving more than 20 surgeons and eight anaesthetics.

“Rahim has regained functioning of both his hands significantly, and is using them for day-to-day activities. He will need intensive physiotherapy for another nine-ten months, for which he will have to stay back in Kochi,” said Dr Subramania Iyer, professor and head of the plastic surgery department at Amrita. “Each hand required connecting of two bones, two arteries, four veins and about 14 tendons each. Immune suppressant drugs, which were started before the commencement of the surgery, are continuing,” said Amrita medical director Dr Prem Nair

The family members of the donor agreed to donate the hands after they were given counselling and were assured that the hands would be replaced with prosthetic limbs to reduce deformity.

The Amrita Institute of Medical Sciences, which has been in the forefront of organ transplant in the country, has already conducted 885 transplants, including two liver transplants, bowel transplants, two twin hand transplants, and a rare pancreas transplant.

“The hospital has been getting requests from across the country and abroad, especially in the Gulf, for hand transplant. We have been highly selective, even in providing counselling, as our experience is very limited,” Dr Iyer added.

Pancreatic Cancer Treatment (PDQ®)

Sections

General Information About Pancreatic Cancer
Stages of Pancreatic Cancer
Recurrent Pancreatic Cancer
Treatment Option Overview
Treatment Options by Stage
Treatment Options for Recurrent Pancreatic Cancer
To Learn More About Pancreatic Cancer
Changes to This Summary (04/​02/​2015)
About This PDQ Summary
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General Information About Pancreatic Cancer
Key Points

Pancreatic cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the pancreas.
Smoking and health history can affect the risk of pancreatic cancer.
Signs and symptoms of pancreatic cancer include jaundice, pain, and weight loss.
Pancreatic cancer is difficult to detect (find) and diagnose early.
Tests that examine the pancreas are used to detect (find), diagnose, and stage pancreatic cancer.
Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.

Pancreatic cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the pancreas.

The pancreas is a gland about 6 inches long that is shaped like a thin pear lying on its side. The wider end of the pancreas is called the head, the middle section is called the body, and the narrow end is called the tail. The pancreas lies between the stomach and the spine.
Enlarge
Anatomy of the pancreas; drawing shows the pancreas, stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, bile ducts, colon, and small intestine. An inset shows the head, body, and tail of the pancreas. The bile duct and pancreatic duct are also shown.
Anatomy of the pancreas. The pancreas has three areas: head, body, and tail. It is found in the abdomen near the stomach, intestines, and other organs.

The pancreas has two main jobs in the body:

To make juices that help digest (break down) food.
To make hormones, such as insulin and glucagon, that help control blood sugar levels. Both of these hormones help the body use and store the energy it gets from food.

The digestive juices are made by exocrine pancreas cells and the hormones are made by endocrine pancreas cells. About 95% of pancreatic cancers begin in exocrine cells.

This summary is about exocrine pancreatic cancer. For information on endocrine pancreatic cancer, see the PDQ summary on Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumors (Islet Cell Tumors) Treatment.

For information on pancreatic cancer in children, see the PDQ summary on Unusual Cancers of Childhood Treatment.
Smoking and health history can affect the risk of pancreatic cancer.

Anything that increases your risk of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer; not having risk factors doesn’t mean that you will not get cancer. Talk with your doctor if you think you may be at risk.

Risk factors for pancreatic cancer include the following:

Smoking.
Being very overweight.
Having a personal history of diabetes or chronic pancreatitis.
Having a family history of pancreatic cancer or pancreatitis.
Having certain hereditary conditions, such as:
Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN1) syndrome.
Hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer (HNPCC; Lynch syndrome).
von Hippel-Lindau syndrome.
Peutz-Jeghers syndrome.
Hereditary breast and ovarian cancer syndrome.
Familial atypical multiple mole melanoma (FAMMM) syndrome.

Signs and symptoms of pancreatic cancer include jaundice, pain, and weight loss.

Pancreatic cancer may not cause early signs or symptoms. Signs and symptoms may be caused by pancreatic cancer or by other conditions. Check with your doctor if you have any of the following:

Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes).
Light-colored stools.
Dark urine.
Pain in the upper or middle abdomen and back.
Weight loss for no known reason.
Loss of appetite.
Feeling very tired.

Pancreatic cancer is difficult to detect (find) and diagnose early.

Pancreatic cancer is difficult to detect and diagnose for the following reasons:

There aren’t any noticeable signs or symptoms in the early stages of pancreatic cancer.
The signs and symptoms of pancreatic cancer, when present, are like the signs and symptoms of many other illnesses.
The pancreas is hidden behind other organs such as the stomach, small intestine, liver, gallbladder, spleen, and bile ducts.

Tests that examine the pancreas are used to detect (find), diagnose, and stage pancreatic cancer.

Pancreatic cancer is usually diagnosed with tests and procedures that make pictures of the pancreas and the area around it. The process used to find out if cancer cells have spread within and around the pancreas is called staging. Tests and procedures to detect, diagnose, and stage pancreatic cancer are usually done at the same time. In order to plan treatment, it is important to know the stage of the disease and whether or not the pancreatic cancer can be removed by surgery.

The following tests and procedures may be used:

Physical exam and history : An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient’s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
Blood chemistry studies : A procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances, such as bilirubin, released into the blood by organs and tissues in the body. An unusual (higher or lower than normal) amount of a substance can be a sign of disease in the organ or tissue that makes it.
Tumor marker test : A procedure in which a sample of blood, urine, or tissue is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances, such as CA 19-9, and carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), made by organs, tissues, or tumor cells in the body. Certain substances are linked to specific types of cancer when found in increased levels in the body. These are called tumor markers.
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): A procedure that uses a magnet, radio waves, and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body. This procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI).
CT scan (CAT scan): A procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, taken from different angles. The pictures are made by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. A dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly. This procedure is also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography. A spiral or helical CT scan makes a series of very detailed pictures of areas inside the body using an x-ray machine that scans the body in a spiral path.
PET scan (positron emission tomography scan): A procedure to find malignant tumor cells in the body. A small amount of radioactive glucose (sugar) is injected into a vein. The PET scanner rotates around the body and makes a picture of where glucose is being used in the body. Malignant tumor cells show up brighter in the picture because they are more active and take up more glucose than normal cells do. A PET scan and CT scan may be done at the same time. This is called a PET-CT.
Abdominal ultrasound : An ultrasound exam used to make pictures of the inside of the abdomen. The ultrasound transducer is pressed against the skin of the abdomen and directs high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) into the abdomen. The sound waves bounce off the internal tissues and organs and make echoes. The transducer receives the echoes and sends them to a computer, which uses the echoes to make pictures called sonograms. The picture can be printed to be looked at later.
Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS): A procedure in which an endoscope is inserted into the body, usually through the mouth or rectum. An endoscope is a thin, tube-like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing. A probe at the end of the endoscope is used to bounce high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) off internal tissues or organs and make echoes. The echoes form a picture of body tissues called a sonogram. This procedure is also called endosonography.
Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP): A procedure used to x-ray the ducts (tubes) that carry bile from the liver to the gallbladder and from the gallbladder to the small intestine. Sometimes pancreatic cancer causes these ducts to narrow and block or slow the flow of bile, causing jaundice. An endoscope (a thin, lighted tube) is passed through the mouth, esophagus, and stomach into the first part of the small intestine. A catheter (a smaller tube) is then inserted through the endoscope into the pancreatic ducts. A dye is injected through the catheter into the ducts and an x-ray is taken. If the ducts are blocked by a tumor, a fine tube may be inserted into the duct to unblock it. This tube (or stent) may be left in place to keep the duct open. Tissue samples may also be taken.
Percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography (PTC): A procedure used to x-ray the liver and bile ducts. A thin needle is inserted through the skin below the ribs and into the liver. Dye is injected into the liver or bile ducts and an x-ray is taken. If a blockage is found, a thin, flexible tube called a stent is sometimes left in the liver to drain bile into the small intestine or a collection bag outside the body. This test is done only if ERCP cannot be done.
Laparoscopy : A surgical procedure to look at the organs inside the abdomen to check for signs of disease. Small incisions (cuts) are made in the wall of the abdomen and a laparoscope (a thin, lighted tube) is inserted into one of the incisions. The laparoscope may have an ultrasound probe at the end in order to bounce high-energy sound waves off internal organs, such as the pancreas. This is called laparoscopic ultrasound. Other instruments may be inserted through the same or other incisions to perform procedures such as taking tissue samples from the pancreas or a sample of fluid from the abdomen to check for cancer.
Biopsy: The removal of cells or tissues so they can be viewed under a microscope by a pathologist to check for signs of cancer. There are several ways to do a biopsy for pancreatic cancer. A fine needle or a core needle may be inserted into the pancreas during an x-ray or ultrasound to remove cells. Tissue may also be removed during a laparoscopy.

Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.

The prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options depend on the following:

Whether or not the tumor can be removed by surgery.
The stage of the cancer (the size of the tumor and whether the cancer has spread outside the pancreas to nearby tissues or lymph nodes or to other places in the body).
The patient’s general health.
Whether the cancer has just been diagnosed or has recurred (come back).

Pancreatic cancer can be controlled only if it is found before it has spread, when it can be completely removed by surgery. If the cancer has spread, palliative treatment can improve the patient’s quality of life by controlling the symptoms and complications of this disease.