Diverticulosis is a condition that develops when pouches (diverticula ) form in the wall of the colon (large intestine). These pouches are usually very small (5 to 10 millimeters) in diameter but can be larger.

In diverticulosis, the pouches in the colon wall do not cause symptoms. Diverticulosis may not be discovered unless symptoms occur, such as in painful diverticular disease or in diverticulitis. As many as 80 out of 100 people who have diverticulosis never get diverticulitis.¹ In many cases, diverticulosis is discovered only when tests are done to find the cause of a different medical problem or during a screening exam.

The reason pouches (diverticula) form in the colon wall is not completely understood. Doctors think diverticula form when high pressure inside the colon pushes against weak spots in the colon wall.

Normally, a diet with adequate fiber (also called roughage) produces stool that is bulky and can move easily through the colon. If a diet is low in fiber, the colon must exert more pressure than usual to move small, hard stool. A low-fiber diet also can increase the time stool remains in the bowel, adding to the high pressure.

What Is a Hyphema?

A hyphema is bleeding or a broken blood vessel inside the eye that causes blood to collect in the anterior chamber of the eye — the space between the cornea and the iris that’s normally filled with a clear liquid called the aqueous humor.

A hyphema is dangerous, usually painful bleeding in the eye where blood collects in the anterior chamber (the space between the cornea and the iris).

The severity of a hyphema is graded by how much blood accumulates in the eye:

• Grade 0 (microhyphema): No visible pooling of blood, but red blood cells can be seen within the anterior chamber upon microscopic examination.
• Grade 1: Pooling of blood in less than the lower third of the anterior chamber.
• Grade 2: Blood filling one third to one half of the anterior chamber.
• Grade 3: Blood filling one half to less than all of the anterior chamber.
• Grade 4: Total filling of the anterior chamber with blood. If the blood is bright red, this is called a total hyphema. If it is dark red-black blood, it’s sometimes called an “8-ball hyphema.”

In general, the higher the grade of hyphema, the greater risk of vision loss and long-term damage to the eye. The dark red or black color of an 8-ball hyphema (the most dangerous type) is associated with decreased circulation of aqueous humor and decreased oxygen in the anterior chamber of the eye.

What Are Other Symptoms Of Hyphema?

In addition to the blood in the eye, the following symptoms usually are associated with hyphema:

• Blurry or distorted vision
• Eye pain
• Light sensitivity (photophobia)
• Headache

Eye pain, sensitivity to light and headache are especially likely to occur if a hyphema is causing increased intraocular pressure (IOP).

What Causes Bleeding In The Eye?

The most common cause of hyphema is trauma to the eye. This is why it is important to see your eye doctor immediately if you sustain an injury that causes a “black eye.”

In some cases, a traumatic hyphema also can occur after eye surgery, including cataract surgery. But this is relatively rare.

It’s also possible for a hyphema to occur spontaneously, particularly among people who are taking blood thinners (such as warfarin or aspirin) or have a blood clotting disorder (hemophilia). Diabetes also can increase the risk of a spontaneous hyphema, as can tumor growth in the eye (ocular melanoma).

Is A Hyphema Serious? Are There Complications?

Usually, the blood that collects in the anterior chamber of the eye due to a hyphema will be reabsorbed by the body without permanent damage to the eye.

But in some cases, clotting of this blood will clog or damage the structure in the periphery of the anterior chamber that controls the normal outflow of aqueous humor from the eye. This can cause increased eye pressure that can lead to glaucoma and permanent vision loss.

Also, in some cases, rebleeding can occur inside the eye after the initial eye injury that causes a traumatic hyphema. This new bleeding (usually occurring within a few days after the injury) can be more severe and more dangerous than the initial bleeding.

People with sickle cell anemia — a hereditary disease in which red blood cells are distorted into a crescent shape — or those who simply have the genetic trait for this disease have an increased risk of eye damage from a hyphema.

Hyphema Treatment

Depending on the severity of a hyphema and associated risk factors, your eye doctor may recommend a combination of the following precautions and treatments:

• Limited physical activity
• Head elevation (including when sleeping)
• Wearing an eye shield
• Frequent follow-up visits for a few weeks or months
• Pain medicine
• Anti-inflammatory medicine (topical or oral)
• Other medications

In the case of a severe hyphema, surgery may be required.

Do not use over-the-counter pain medications that contain aspirin or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) if you have a hyphema, as these medications can increase the risk of rebleeding in the eye.

Even if your eye feels fine and you don’t notice vision problems, see an eye doctor immediately if you have eye trauma that could cause a hyphema. Make sure to attend all follow-up visits your doctor recommends.

Also, routine eye exams are very important after having a hyphema, as your risk of elevated eye pressure and glaucoma may be higher even years later.

How Can I Prevent A Hyphema?

The best way to avoid a traumatic hyphema is to wear safety glasses or other protective eyewear whenever you are involved in potentially hazardous activities.

Protective sports glasses should be worn when playing baseball, softball, racquetball, basketball, hockey or other sports that pose a risk of trauma to the eyes.

Also, be aware that sports like boxing significantly increase your risk of a traumatic hyphema. And if you participate in paintball games, wear protective headgear that includes a clear, impact-resistant shield that fully protects your face and eyes.

Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disease that causes mucus in the body to become thick and sticky. This glue-like mucus builds up and causes problems in many of the body’s organs, especially the lungs and the pancreas . People who have cystic fibrosis can have serious breathing problems and lung disease. They can also have problems with nutrition, digestion, and growth. The disease generally gets worse over time.

The life expectancy for people with cystic fibrosis has been steadily increasing.

Cystic fibrosis is one of the most common genetic disorders in children. It’s caused by a change, or mutation, in a gene. The changed gene is passed down in families. To pass on this disease, both parents must be carriers of the changed gene.

Cystic fibrosis is usually diagnosed at an early age. The symptoms aren’t the same for everyone. But some common symptoms in a baby who has cystic fibrosis include:

• A blocked small intestine at birth. This prevents the baby from passing his or her first stool.
• Very salty sweat or skin.
• Diarrhea.
• Not growing or gaining weight the way that other children do.
• Breathing problems, lung infections, a cough that does not go away, and wheezing.

Other symptoms may also develop in childhood, such as:

• Clubbing (rounding and flattening) of the fingers.
• Rectal prolapse (when part of the rectum protrudes from the anus).
• Growths (polyps) in the nose or sinuses.

Babies in the United States and Canada are tested for cystic fibrosis right after birth. Screening tests look for a certain health problem before any symptoms appear. The doctor may also notice the signs of cystic fibrosis during a routine exam.

If your child has a positive newborn screening test or symptoms of cystic fibrosis, your doctor will order a sweat test to see how much salt is in your child’s sweat. People with cystic fibrosis have sweat that is much saltier than normal. The doctor may also suggest a genetic test. Finding a high amount of salt in two sweat tests or finding certain changed genes will confirm a diagnosis.

The types of treatment your child receives depends on what kinds of health problems the cystic fibrosis is causing and how your child’s body responds to different types of treatment. Doctors usually recommend a combination of medicines, home treatment methods (including respiratory and nutritional therapies), and other specialized care to manage the disease.

What is eczema?

Eczema is a dry, itchy skin condition that affects up to one in five children. It usually appears for the first time before your child is two years old. The good news is that most children who have eczema will grow out of the condition by the time they are in their teens. Eczema can’t be cured, but it can be controlled with the right treatments.

Eczema is also known as atopic eczema, or atopic dermatitis. Atopic means that your child has inherited the tendency to develop conditions such as eczema, asthma and hayfever. The end result is the same: dry, itchy, red and cracked skin, which can sometimes ooze fluid and bleed. The areas most affected in babies are the hands, face, neck, elbows and backs of the knees.

Having eczema means that the skin’s barrier doesn’t work as well as it should, which makes it drier. His skin will be more prone to infections and allergens can enter the skin more easily, which can make the condition worse.

What causes eczema?

We don’t know exactly what causes eczema, but genes may play a role. Allergic conditions, including eczema, asthma, and hayfever, have increased over the last few decades, though it has started to level off.

Eczema affects the skin in flare-ups. Your baby’s skin may have dry and itchy patches of skin most of the time, but during flare-ups, these areas worsen and become inflamed. This happens as his immune systems overreacts to substances he’s allergic to (allergens). He may then need more intensive treatment.

Eczema flare-ups can sometimes be triggered by skin irritation caused by chemicals, such as the detergents in bubble baths, shampoos, washing powders and fabric softeners. Use bath emollient rather than soaps and detergents in the bath. You could also try changing your washing detergent to non-biological, to see if this improves your baby’s eczema.

Eczema can be extremely distressing in babies because they find it very difficult not to scratch, which can lead to infections. In some cases eczema can disturb your child’s sleep and affect his confidence.

How can I treat my baby’s eczema?

The treatment of eczema depends on its severity. If your child has mild eczema with only a few red and itchy areas, you may simply be advised to use an emollient lotion, cream or ointment, sometimes combined with a short course of a low-strength steroid cream.

Moisturising your baby’s skin to prevent flare-ups is crucial. All children with eczema need to use liberal quantities of an emollient several times a day, even if no patches of eczema are present. This prevents skin from drying out too much.

There are a huge variety of moisturisers or emollients available and you may have to try several to find the one that suits your child best. These are available as creams, ointments, lotions and bath additives.

You may have to use large quantities of emollient on a regular basis. Your doctor should regularly offer repeat prescriptions once you know which one works best. Aqueous cream is an emollient that is best avoided. It can contain detergents that can irritate your child’s skin.

Will using steroids harm my baby?

Doctors often recommend that eczema in babies is treated with steroid cream or ointment, as well as an emollient, from time to time. Steroid creams and ointments are safe if used correctly. Their main side-effect is thinning of the skin if they are used for long periods of time, but there is no evidence that this is permanent.

It’s important to use the correct strength of steroid cream, depending on the severity of the eczema. Steroids should always be used under the supervision of your doctor, who will show you how much to put on your baby’s skin.

When using steroid cream, only use it on the affected areas, no more than twice a day, and remember always to use plenty of emollient cream. You can apply as much emollient as your baby needs.

What other treatments are available?

Oral antihistamines are sometimes prescribed if a baby’s eczema is very itchy and it’s disturbing his sleep, but they aren’t used routinely to treat eczema. The ones normally available for young children often cause drowsiness, so are best used at night. You should seek your doctor’s advice before giving young children antihistamines.

If your baby has more severe eczema, he may need stronger steroid creams or ointments from time to time. If his eczema isn’t responding to treatment, he may need to be referred to a specialist dermatologist for other treatments.

Other treatments that may help severe cases of eczema include dry bandages and wet wrapping, where bandages are soaked in emollient or steroid cream and then dry bandages are wrapped on top. This helps the treatments to soak into the skin.

What happens if the eczema becomes infected?

Eczema can be complicated by skin infections that are often caused by scratching until the skin is broken. If your baby’s eczema becomes infected, it may bleed, crust over or weep fluid, and will need antibiotics to clear up the infection. If only a small area is infected, your baby will probably be prescribed an antibiotic cream. If a large area is infected he will need to take antibiotic medicine by mouth.

Can I do anything to prevent my child’s eczema flare-ups?

• Breastfeeding exclusively for at least four months may help to protect against eczema and other allergies. The Department of Health recommends exclusive breastfeeding for six months.
• Some children who develop eczema may be allergic to cow’s milk, but it’s important to talk to your doctor before removing cow’s milk (or cow’s milk formula) from your baby’s diet. If your baby is formula-fed, your doctor may recommend a trial of a hydrolysed protein formula. Soya-based formulas and goats’ milk formula are not recommended.
• There isn’t any firm evidence that avoiding certain foods while you are breastfeeding or during pregnancy will prevent your child from getting eczema, but it is worth talking to your doctor if you are breastfeeding and eating a certain food seems to cause a reaction in your child. Don’t alter your diet unless you have discussed it with your doctor first.
• There is some evidence that taking probiotics (either in the form of a supplement or food such as yoghurt) during pregnancy may reduce the chance of your child developing eczema, but more research is needed.

If Clostridium tetani spores are deposited in a wound, the neurotoxin interferes with nerves that control muscle movement.

The infection can cause severe muscle spasms, serious breathing difficulties, and can ultimately be fatal. Although tetanus treatment exists, it is not uniformly effective. The best way to protect against tetanus is to take the vaccine.

Causes of tetanus :

Tetanus is caused by the Clostridium tetani bacterium. Clostridium tetani spores are able to survive for a long time outside of the body. They are most commonly found in animal manure and contaminated soil, but may exist virtually anywhere.

When Clostridium tetani enter the body, they multiply rapidly and release tetanospasmin, a neurotoxin. When tetanospasmin enters the bloodstream, it rapidly spreads around the body, causing tetanus symptoms.

Tetanospasmin interferes with the signals traveling from the brain to the nerves in the spinal cord, and then on to the muscles, causing muscle spasms and stiffness.

Puncture wounds – Clostridium tetani enters the body mainly through skin lesions (skin cut or puncture wound). Thoroughly cleaning any cut helps prevent an infection from developing.

Common ways of contracting tetanus

• Wounds that have been contaminated with saliva or feces
• Burns
• Crush injuries
• Wounds that include necrotic (dead) tissue
• Puncture wounds

Rare ways of contracting tetanus

• Surgical procedures
• Superficial wounds
• Insect bites
• Compound fractures
• Intravenous drug use
• Injections into the muscle (intramuscular)
• Dental infections

Symptoms of tetanus

Tetanus symptoms usually emerge about 7-10 days after initial infection; however, this can vary from 4 days to about 3 weeks, and, in some cases, it may take months.

In general, the further the injury site is from the central nervous system, the longer the incubation period. Patients with shorter incubation times tend to have more severe symptoms.

Muscle symptoms – spasms and muscular rigidity (muscles become stiff). Stiffness usually starts with the chewing muscles, hence the name lockjaw.

Muscle spasms then spread to the neck and throat, causing dysphagia (difficulty swallowing). Patients often go on to have spasms in their facial muscles.

Breathing difficulties may result from neck and chest muscle stiffness. With some patients, abdominal and limb muscles are also affected.

In severe cases, the spine will arch backward as the back muscles are affected – this is more common when children are infected.

Most patients with tetanus will also have the following symptoms:

• Bloody stools (feces)
• Diarrhea
• Fever
• Headache
• Sensitivity to touch
• Sore throat
• Sweating
• Tachycardia (rapid heartbeat)

Complications

If the patient does not receive treatment, the risk of life-threatening complications is higher – mortality rates vary from 40-76 percent – symptoms may include:

• Fractures – sometimes, in severe cases, the muscle spasms and convulsions may lead to bone fractures.
• Aspiration pneumonia – if secretions or contents of the stomach are inhaled, a lower respiratory tract infection can develop, leading to pneumonia.
• Laryngospasm – the larynx (voice box) goes into a spasm which can last up to a minute and cause breathing difficulties. In severe cases, the patient can suffocate.
• Tetanic seizures – if infection spreads to the brain, the patient can have epileptic-like fits (seizures).
• Pulmonary embolism – a blood vessel in the lung can become blocked and affect breathing and circulation. The patient will urgently need oxygen therapy and anti-clotting medication.
• Severe kidney failure (acute renal failure) – severe muscle spasms can result in the destruction of skeletal muscle which can cause myoglobin – a muscle protein – to leak into the urine. This can cause acute renal failure (severe kidney failure).

Prevention of tetanus

Most cases of tetanus occur in people who have never been immunized (never had the vaccine), or who did not have a booster shot within the preceding decade.

The tetanus vaccine

The tetanus vaccine is routinely given to children as part of the DTaP (diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and acellular pertussis) shot. The DTaP vaccine consists of five shots, usually given in the arm or thigh of children when they are aged:

• 2 months
• 4 months
• 6 months
• 15 – 18 months
• 4 – 6 years

A booster is normally given between the ages of 11 and 18 years, and then another booster every 10 years. If an individual is traveling to an area where tetanus is common, they should check with a doctor regarding vaccinations.

Tears are needed to keep the front surface of the eye healthy and maintain clear vision. Too many tears can make it difficult to see, however.

Epiphora can develop at any age. It is, however, more common among babies aged under 12 months, and adults over the age of 60 years. The condition may present symptoms in just one or both eyes.

In most cases watering eye can be treated effectively. Depending on the severity of symptoms, watering eye can sometimes make driving difficult and dangerous.

There are two main causes of watering eyes – blocked tear ducts or excessive production of tears. Let’s look at each of these in turn.

Blocked tear ducts

Some humans are born with underdeveloped tear ducts. It is not uncommon for newborns to have watery eyes. Generally, this problem goes away within a few weeks as the ducts develop.

If a patient’s tear ducts are narrowed or blocked their tears will not be able to drain away and will build up in the tear sac. Stagnant tears in the tear sac increase the risk of infection in that area and the eye will produce a sticky liquid, further exacerbating the problem. Infection can also lead to inflammation on the side of the nose, next to the eye.

Narrow drainage channels on the insides of the eyes (canaliculi) can become blocked. This is caused by swelling or scarring.

Over-production of tears

Irritated eyes may produce more tears than normal as the body tries to rinse the irritant away.

The following irritants can cause the over-production of tears:

• Some chemicals, such as fumes, and even onions
• Infective conjunctivitis
• Allergic conjunctivitis
• An injury to the eye, such as a scratch or a bit of grit (tiny pebble or piece of dirt)
• Trichiasis – inward-growing eyelashes, often caused by marginal entropion (the eye lid turns in at the edges towards the eye)
• Ectropion – this is when the lower eyelid turns outwards.

The tears of some patients have a high fat (lipid) content. This may interfere with the even spread of liquid across the eye, leaving dry patches which become sore, irritated and cause the eye to produce more tears.

Other causes

There are many causes of watering eyes. The following conditions among others can also lead to an overflow of tears:

• Keratitis, an infection of the cornea
• Corneal ulcer, an open sore that forms on the eye
• Styes or chalazions, lumps that can grow on the edge of the eyelid
• Bell’s palsy
• Dry eyes
• Allergies, including hay fever
• A problem with glands in the eyelids called the Meibomian glands
• Use of certain medications

Diagnosis

If the GP cannot clearly determine the cause of the watering eye, the patient may be referred to an eye-care specialist doctor (ophthalmologist). The specialist will examine the patient’s eye(s) carefully – usually, the patient will be anesthetized.

A probe might be inserted into the narrow drainage channels on the inside of the eye (canaliculi) to see whether they are blocked.

Liquid may be inserted into a tear duct to find out whether it comes out of the patient’s nose. If it is found to be blocked, a dye may be injected to find the exact location of the blockage – this will be done by using an X-ray image of the area. The dye shows up on the X-ray.

Treatments

Treatment options depend on the severity of the epiphora and its causes. In mild cases doctors may recommend just watchful waiting – doing nothing and monitoring the patient’s progress.

Different causes of watering eyes have specific treatment options:

• Irritation: If the watering eye is caused by infective conjunctivitis the doctor may prefer to wait for a week or so to see if the problem resolves itself without antibiotics.
• Trichiasis: An inward-growing eyelash, or some foreign object that lodged in the eye, the doctor will remove it.
• Ectropion: The eyelid turns outwards – the patient may need to undergo surgery in which the tendon that holds the outer eyelid in place is tightened.
• Blocked tear ducts: Surgery which creates a new channel from the tear sac to the inside of the nose may be necessary. This allows the tears to bypass the blocked part of the tear duct. This surgical procedure is called DCR (dacryocystorhinostomy).

If the drainage channels on the inside of the eye (canaliculi) are narrowed, but not entirely blocked, the doctor may use a probe to make them wider. When the canaliculi are completely blocked an operation may be required.

In the majority of cases the condition resolves itself on its own within a few weeks. Sometimes a sticky liquid may form around the baby’s eye(s). In such cases, using a piece of cotton wool that has been soaked in sterile water can be used to clean the eye(s). Sterile water needs to be boiled – make sure it is cooled before dipping the cotton wool into it.

Sometimes tears can be dislodged if you gently massage the tear ducts. Apply light pressure with the finger and thumb to the outside of the baby’s nose.

• Tonsils and adenoids are composed of tissues similar to the lymph nodes or glands.
• Acute tonsillitis is an infection of the tonsils caused by one of several types of bacteria or viruses.
• Chronic tonsillitis is a persistent infection of the tonsils and can cause tonsil stone formation.
• Signs and symptoms of tonsil or adenoid infection include:
  • Sore throat
  • Fever
  • Bad breath
  • Difficulty swallowing
  • Swollen lymph glands in the front of the neck
• Peritonsillar abscess is a collection of pus behind the tonsils.
• Obstruction to breathing by enlarged tonsils and adenoids may cause snoring and disturbed sleep patterns.
• Bacterial infections of the tonsils and adenoids are treated with antibiotics, viral infections are not.
• Tonsillitis and adenoid infections are diagnosed with a history and physical exam. A throat culture and rapid strep test may be ordered in cases of tonsillitis suspected to be bacterial.
• Tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy (surgical removal of the tonsils) may be recommended: (1) for repeated or persistent infections; (2) when serious complications of infection occur; and (3) when enlargement of the tonsils and adenoids causes breathing, swallowing, or dental problems.

The tonsils and adenoids are composed of tissues similar to the lymph nodes or glands found in the neck or other parts of the body. Together, they are part of a ring of glandular tissue (Waldeyer’s ring) encircling the back of the throat.

The tonsils are the two masses of tissue on either side of the back of the throat. Normal tonsils are usually about the same size and have the same pink color as the surrounding area. On their surfaces are little depressions, called crypts, which may appear deep and contain pus pockets or tonsil stones.

The adenoids are located high in the throat behind the nose and soft palate (the roof of the mouth) and unlike the tonsils, are not easily visible through the mouth. A tonsillectomy and an adenoidectomy (commonly referred to as a T & A) are surgical procedures performed to remove the tonsils and adenoids.

The tonsils and adenoids are thought to assist the body in its defense against incoming bacteria and viruses by helping the body form antibodies. However, this function may only be important during the first year of life. There is no evidence to support a significant role of the tonsils and adenoids in immunity. Medical studies have shown that children who have their tonsils and adenoids removed suffer no loss in their future immunity to disease or ability to ward off infections.

The most prominent symptom of tonsillitis and adenoid infection is a sore throat. Other signs and symptoms of tonsillitis and adenoid infection include:

• Fever
• Bad breath
• Congestion and runny nose
• Swollen lymph nodes in front of the neck
• Red, swollen tonsils with patches of pus (white spots)
• Pain or difficulty swallowing
• Loss of voice or muffled voice
• Headache
• Abdominal pain
• Coughing up blood
• If the adenoids are enlarged, breathing through the nose may be difficult and symptoms may include:
  • Breathing through the mouth, especially in children
  • Noisy breathing in the day; snoring at night is often observed
  • Nasal-sounding voice

When there is a sore throat and cold symptoms such as congestion, runny nose, sneezing, and coughing, the cause is most likely a virus. Viral infection of the tonsils or adenoids usually resolves without treatment within two weeks.

Sore throat with a sudden mild fever, without symptoms of an upper respiratory tract infection, may point to a bacterial infection. If these symptoms are present, see a doctor for diagnosis because of the risk of strep throat. Although strep throat will usually go away even without treatment, an untreated strep infection can lead to complications including rheumatic fever, which can permanently damage the heart.

Picture of bacterial and viral tonsillitis

• Difficulty breathing through the nose
• Nasal congestion, usually one side more than the other
• Recurrent sinus infections
• Nosebleeds
• Sleep problems, such as contributing to loud snoring or sleep apnea
• Headache postnasal drip

How is deviated septum diagnosed?

Your health care professional can diagnose a deviated septum during the physical examination. Usually a bright light and an instrument that can help visualize the nasal septum by opening the nostril (nasal speculum) will help make the correct diagnosis. Some deviated septums are deep in the nose and may require further evaluation in the office with a small telescope or endoscope. Imaging may occasionally be done with a CT scan to view the extent and other associated to findings, but this is not often done.

A deviated septum is an extremely common condition and many people with a deviated septum do not need treatment.

Some symptoms such as a stuffy nose or postnasal drip may be alleviated with medication, including decongestants, antihistamines, or nasal sprays. In many cases, medications are tried before surgery is recommended.

If a person has a deviated septum and it causes breathing problems or sleep apnea and snoring, surgery may be recommended to repair the septum. Surgery to fix a deviated septum is called a septoplasty, submucous resection of the septum, or septal reconstruction.

See your doctor about a deviated septum if you have:

• trouble with nasal breathing,
• sleep problems (particularly sleep apnea), or
• chronic sinus problems.

A deviated septum may cause any of these problems, however, there are other reasons these symptoms may occur and it is important to see a doctor for a correct diagnosis and treatment. 

Nasal polyps are common, noncancerous, teardrop-shaped growths that form in the nose or sinuses. They’re usually found around the area where the sinuses open into the nasal cavity. Mature ones look like peeled grapes.

Often linked to allergies or asthma, they may cause no symptoms, especially if they’re small and don’t need treatment. Larger ones can block normal drainage from the sinuses. When too much mucus builds up in the sinuses, it can become infected.

Unlike polyps that form in the colon or bladder, nasal ones are rarely cancer. Experts think that long-term inflammation causes them or that they run in families.

Nasal polyps aren’t painful to the touch. Medications or surgery can treat most. They may come back, though.

If you have any symptoms, they may include:

• Stuffy or blocked nose
• Sneezing
• Postnasal drip
• Runny nose
• Facial pain
• Trouble with sense of smell
• Loss of taste
• Itching around the eyes
• Infections

Many people also have wheezing, sinus infections, and sensitivity to fumes, odors, dusts, and chemicals. It’s less common, but some people with nasal polyps also have a severe allergy to aspirin and reaction to yellow dyes. If you know you have that allergy, ask your doctor to check for nasal polyps.

Nasal polyps make you more likely to have long-term (chronic) sinusitis. Large ones can even change the shape of your nose.

Anyone can, but they’re most common in adults over age 40 and are twice as likely to affect men as women. Children under age 10 rarely get them. If they do, a doctor will check for signs of cystic fibrosis.

Nasal polyps are linked to allergic rhinitis, asthma, aspirin allergy, sinus infections, acute and chronic infections, something stuck in the nose, and cystic fibrosis. But many times the cause is unknown. Sometimes, people get them before they develop asthma or sinusitis.

Some experts think that symptoms of allergies — including runny nose, sneezing, and itching — make some people more likely to get nasal polyps. But the allergy connection is controversial. Other researchers think that sinus infections are to blame.

If you think that you have nasal polyps, your doctor can check. She’ll use a nasal endoscope, which is a tool with a magnifying lens or camera that provides a detailed view of your nose and sinuses. In some cases, your doctor may order more tests or take a small sample (a biopsy) of the polyp.

If you need treatment, you’ll probably start with a nasal corticosteroid spray. In many cases, that can shrink or even get rid of nasal polyps. But some people need to take corticosteroids such as prednisone by mouth for a week.

Unfortunately, nasal polyps tend to come back if the irritation, allergy, or infection continues. So you may need to keep using a corticosteroid spray and get checkups with a nasal endoscope every now and then.

What Happens in a Nasal Allergy Attack?

Sometimes, nasal polyps are so large that corticosteroid nasal sprays don’t work. In such cases, surgery may be an option.

The doctor would likely use a small nasal telescope that removes nasal polyps. You can go home the same day as the surgery.

Surgery helps in most cases. It may be less effective if you have nasal polyps, asthma, and aspirin sensitivity. If that’s you, medication may be more helpful.

Macular degeneration is the leading cause of severe vision loss in people over age 60. It occurs when the small central portion of the retina, known as the macula, deteriorates. The retina is the light-sensing nerve tissue at the back of the eye. Because the disease develops as a person ages, it is often referred to as age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Although macular degeneration is almost never a totally blinding condition, it can be a source of significant visual disability.

If you’re in the early stages of age-related macular degeneration you may not have symptoms. The first sign you may notice is a gradual or sudden change in the quality of your vision or that straight lines appear distorted to you. This may gradually turn into a dramatic loss of your central vision.

Other symptoms include:

• Dark, blurry areas or whiteout that appears in the center of your vision
• In rare cases, you may have a change in your perception of color

For age-related macular degeneration, you should see a doctor called an ophthalmologist. They specialize in eye care and surgery.

In general, if you’re older than 45 you should get a complete eye exam and then follow-up exams every 2 to 4 years.

If you have age-related macular degeneration, check your vision every day and let your doctor know if you notice any changes.

Keep in mind that vision problems could also be signs of another condition besides macular degeneration. Work with your doctor to get the right treatment for you.