Monomelic amyotrophy (MMA) is characterized by progressive degeneration and loss of motor neurons, the nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord that are responsible for controlling voluntary muscles. It is characterized by weakness and wasting in a single limb, usually an arm and hand rather than a foot and leg. There is no pain associated with MMA. While some physicians contend that mild sensory loss may be associated with this disease, many experts suggest that such symptoms actually indicate a cause other than MMA. MMA occurs in males between the ages of 15 and 25. Onset and progression are slow. MMA is seen most frequently in Asia, particularly in Japan and India. In most cases, the cause is unknown, although there have been a few published reports linking MMA to traumatic or radiation injury. There are also familial forms of MMA. Diagnosis is made by physical exam and medical history. Electromyography (EMG), a special recording technique that detects electrical activity in muscles, shows a loss of the nerve supply, or denervation, in the affected limb; MRI and CT scans may show muscle atrophy. People believed to have MMA should be followed by a neuromuscular disease specialist for a number of months to make certain that no signs of other motor neuron diseases develop.

Treatments:

There is no cure for MMA. Treatment consists of muscle strengthening exercises and training in hand coordination.

Cancer happens when there is uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells that thrive and spread instead of dying as they would in the life cycle of a normal cell.

Lymphoma is a cancer that starts in the white blood cells, or lymphocytes.

Lymphatic cancers are classified by the type of immune cells affected. The two main types are Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin. Within these, there are many subtypes.

Non-Hodgkin, the most common type, affects B and T cells. Classic Hodgkin lymphoma is marked by the presence of cells known as Reed-Sternberg cells. Other subtypes affect different types of cells.

Hodgkin can occur at any age, but it is most common in children and adults under 25 years. It affects men more than women. In most cases, it is curable, but treatment and prognosis vary between sub types.

Tumor Stages are below:

 

Symptoms

The signs and symptoms of lymphoma are similar to those of illnesses such as viral diseases and the common cold, but they continue for longer than would normally be expected.

Some people will have no symptoms, but some may notice a swelling of the lymph nodes. These are located all around the body, often in the neck, groin, abdomen, or armpits.

The swellings are normally painless, but pain may occur if the enlarged glands press on organs, bones, and other structures. This can be confused with back pain.

Lymph nodes can swell during common infections, such as a cold, but in lymphoma the swelling does not go away. Pain is also more likely to accompany the swelling if it is due to an infection.

The overlap of symptoms can lead to misdiagnosis.

Anyone who has ongoing swelling of the glands should see their doctor.

Other symptoms of both types of lymphoma may include:

• ongoing fever without infection
• night sweats, fever, and chills
• weight loss and loss of appetite
• unusual itching
• persistent fatigue, unusual tiredness, or lack of energy
• pain in lymph nodes after drinking alcohol

Additional symptoms that can indicate Non-Hodgkin lymphoma include:

• persistent coughing
• shortness of breath
• pain or swelling of the abdomen

Pain, weakness, paralysis, or otherwise altered sensation can occur if an enlarged lymph node presses against spinal nerves or the spinal cord.

Lymphoma can spread rapidly from the lymph nodes to other parts of the body through the lymphatic system. As cancerous lymphocytes spread into other tissues, the body’s ability to fight infection weakens.

Causes and risk factors

Exactly what causes lymphoma is unclear, but there are some risk factors.

Non-Hodgkin lymphoma

Risk factors for non-Hodgkin lymphoma include:

• Age: Most lymphomas occur in people aged 60 years and older, but some types are more likely to affect children and young adults.
• Sex: Some types are more likely in women, others are more likely in men.
• Ethnicity and location: It is more common in developed nations.
• Chemicals and radiation: Nuclear radiation and some chemicals used in agriculture have been linked to non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
• Immunodeficiency: A person with a weak immune system is more at risk. This can be due, for example, to HIV ro AIDS, medications taken after an organ transplant.
• Autoimmune disease: This is when the immune system attack the body’s own cells. Examples include rheumatoid arthritis and celiac disease.
• Infection: Certain viral and bacterial infections that transform lymphocytes increase the risk, such as the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), which causes glandular fever.
• Breast implants: These can cause anaplastic large cell lymphoma in the breast tissue.
• Body weight and diet: Obesity has been implicated in the development of lymphoma, although more research is needed to confirm the link.

Hodgkin lymphoma

Risk factors for Hodgkin lymphoma include:

• Infectious mononucleosis: Infection with EBV can cause mononucleosis, which increases the risk of lymphoma.
• Age: People between the ages of 20 and 30 years and people over the age of 55 years have a higher risk
• Sex: It is slightly more common in men.
• Location: Hodgkin lymphoma is most common in the U.S., Canada, and northern Europe. It is least common in Asia.
• Family: If a sibling has the condition, the risk is slightly higher, and very high if the sibling is an identical twin.
• Affluence: People from higher socioeconomic status are at greater risk
• HIV infection: This can weaken the immune system and increase the risk of lymphoma.

Spread of lymphoma

Lymphatic tissue is connected throughout the body, and the cancer cells can spread easily from their original location to other tissues and organs, including those outside of the lymphatic system.

Lymphoma most often spreads to the liver, bone marrow, or lungs.

In Hodgkin lymphoma, this spread usually affects one lymph node after another in order.

In non-Hodgkin lymphoma, tumors may arise in disparate lymph nodes, skipping some nodes.

Tests for lymphoma

Tests will confirm whether lymphoma is present.

Blood tests and biopsies can detect the presence of lymphoma and distinguish between them.

A biopsy involves taking a sample of lymph tissue for examination in a laboratory. The surgeon may remove a whole lymph or a part of one. In some cases, a needle can be used to take a tissue sample. A bone marrow biopsy may be necessary. This may need a local anesthetic, a sedative, or a general anesthetic.

Biopsies and other tests can confirm the stage of the cancer, to see whether it has spread to other parts of the body.

Imaging tests such as a CT or MRI scan, X-ray imaging of the chest, abdomen, and pelvis, ultrasound scanning, or a PET scan.

A spinal tap, where a long, thin needle is used under local anesthetic to remove and test spinal fluid.

Staging of the cancer depends on the type, growth rate, and cellular characteristics. In stage 0 or I, the cancer is confined to a small area. In stage 4, it has spread to more distant organs.

Lymphoma can also be described as indolent, limited to one place, or aggressive, spreading to other parts of the body.

Treatment:

Treatment depends on the type of lymphoma and the stage it has reached. Indolent, or slow-growing lymphoma may need only watchful waiting and no treatment.

If treatment is necessary, it can involve:

• Biologic therapy: This is a drug treatment that stimulates the immune system to attack the cancer cells by inserting living microorganisms into the body.
• Antibody therapy: Synthetic antibodies are inserted into the bloodstream to combat the cancer’s antigens.
• Chemotherapy: Aggressive drug treatment is used to kills cancer cells.
• Radioimmunotherapy: This delivers high-powered radioactive doses directly into the cancerous B-cells and T-cells to destroy them.
• Radiation therapy: This is used to focus on small areas of cancer.
• Stem-cell transplantation: This can restore damaged bone marrow following high-dose chemotherapy or radiation therapy.
• Steroids: These may be injected to treat lymphoma.
• Surgery: This can be used to remove the spleen or other organs after the lymphoma has spread.

Surgery is used more often for obtaining a biopsy.

 

Lung cancer is a malignant lung disease primarily caused by cigarette smoking. It often has no obvious symptoms until the disease is quite advanced, and has a low rate of survival. Treatment for lung cancer mainly involves surgery and chemotherapy, while radiation therapy and targeted drug therapies may also be used.

What is lung cancer?

Lung cancer results from abnormal growth of cells in the lining of the lungs, leading to the growth of a malignant tumour.

There are two different types of lung cancer – small cell lung cancer (SCLC) and non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) – which differ in terms of how they grow and spread to other parts of the body and how they’re treated.

Causes

The development of lung cancer is strongly associated with cigarette smoking – approximately 90% of lung cancers are attributable to tobacco use. Pipe and cigar smoking can also cause lung cancer, but the risk is not as high as with cigarette smoking. Tobacco smoke contains more than 4,000 chemical compounds, many of which are cancer-causing (carcinogens).  Passive smoking, i.e. the inhalation of tobacco smoke by non-smokers who live or work with smokers, is also an established risk factor for the development of lung cancer.

Although the majority of lung cancers are linked to tobacco smoking, not all smokers go on to develop lung cancer suggesting that genetic susceptibility (i.e. family history) may play a role in the development of lung cancer.  Other causes of lung cancer include air pollution (from vehicles, industry, and power generation) and inhalation of asbestos fibres (usually in the workplace).

Signs, symptoms, and diagnosis

Symptoms of lung cancer are varied and warning signs are not always obvious. Up to 25% of people who get lung cancer display no symptoms. In people who do display symptoms, they include the following:

• Persistent cough and hoarseness
• Shortness of breath, wheezing, and chest pain
• Blood-streaked sputum
• Chest pain
• Frequent episodes of bronchitis or pneumonia
• Weight loss, weakness, and fatigue.

A wide range of diagnostic tests and procedures are used to diagnose lung cancer, including taking a patient history, physical examination, blood tests, chest x-rays, computerized tomography (CT) and positron emission tomography (PET) scans, bone scans, bronchoscopy, cytological studies of sputum, bronchial washings, and fine needle biopsy. Many of these procedures are also used to determine the stage of the cancer.

Staging of lung cancer

The stage of a lung cancer refers to the extent to which the cancer has spread to other parts of the body. Staging helps to determine how the cancer should be treated. Lung cancer can spread to any organ in the body but the liver, brain, and bones are the most common sites. The two types of lung cancer are staged differently. A simplified overview of staging is as follows:

NSCLC
Stage I: cancer that is confined to the lung
Stage II: cancer that is confined to the chest
Stage III: cancer that is confined to the chest but with larger and more aggressive tumours than at stage II
Stage VI: cancer that has spread to other parts of the body.

SCLC
Limited-stage: cancer confined to the area of the chest
Extensive-stage: cancer that has spread to other parts of the body.

Treatment

Treatment for cancer involves a combination of surgery to remove cancer cells, and chemotherapy and radiation therapy to kill cancer cells. Lung cancer is incurable unless complete surgical removal of the tumour cells can be achieved.

Surgery is the most effective treatment for lung cancer but only about 20% of lung cancers are suitable for surgery i.e. Stage I and II NSCLC and cancer that has not spread beyond the lung.

Radiation therapy may be used for both NSCLC and SCLC and is a good option for people who are not suitable for surgery or who refuse surgery.

Chemotherapy is used for both NSCLC and SCLC. Chemotherapy drugs may be given alone or in combination with surgery or radiation therapy. Chemotherapy is the treatment of first choice for SCLC since it has usually spread extensively in the body by the time it has been diagnosed.

Also used in the treatment of lung cancer are targeted therapies. These are drugs (gefitinib and erlotinib) or antibodies (cetuximab, bevacizumab) that block the growth and spread of cancer by interfering with specific molecules involved in tumour growth and progression. They are used in some patients with NSCLC that does not respond to standard chemotherapy.

Prevention

The most effective measure that can be taken to prevent the development of lung cancer is to stop smoking. Reducing exposure to passive smoking is also an effective method of prevention.

What Is Bone Cancer?

Types of Bone Cancer

What Are the Symptoms of Bone Cancer?

About the gastrointestinal tract

The gastrointestinal (GI or digestive) tract includes the:

• Esophagus
• Stomach
• Gallbladder and bile ducts
• Liver
• Pancreas
• Small intestine
• Colon
• Rectum
• Anus
• Lining of the gut

The GI tract plays a central role in digesting food and liquid and in processing waste.  When you swallow food, it is pushed down a muscular tube called the esophagus and enters the stomach. The muscles in the stomach mix the food and release gastric juices that help break down and digest the food.

The food then moves into the small intestine, or small bowel, for further digestion before entering the large intestine. The large intestine helps remove waste from the body. The colon makes up the first 5 to 6 feet of the large intestine. The rectum makes up the last 6 inches, ending at the anus.

About gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST)

A tumor begins when healthy cells change and grow out of control, forming a mass called a tumor. A tumor can be cancerous or benign. A cancerous tumor is malignant, meaning it can grow and spread to other parts of the body. A benign tumor means the tumor can grow but will not spread. A tumor can start in any part of the GI tract. There are several different types of GI tumors, including gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST).

GISTs are different from more common types of GI tumors because of the type of tissue in which they start. GISTs belong to a group of cancers called soft-tissue sarcomas. Soft-tissue sarcomas develop in the tissues that support and connect the body. The sarcoma cells resemble the cells that hold the body together, including fat cells, muscles, nerves, tendons, joints, blood vessels, and lymph vessels.

Doctors used to think that GISTs were muscle or nerve tumors. However, research shows that GIST begins in “pacemaker” cells found in the walls of the GI tract. These pacemaker cells are called interstitial cells of Cajal (ICCs), and they send signals to the GI tract to help move food and liquid through the digestive system.

  

Symptoms :

People with GIST often do not experience any specific symptoms or signs. When symptoms do occur, they may be vague. Or, the cause of a symptom may be a different medical condition that is not a tumor.

• Pain or discomfort in the abdomen
• A mass in the abdomen that you can feel with your hand
• Bowel obstruction
• Nausea and vomiting
• Vomiting blood
• Blood in the stool
• Fatigue due to anemia, which is a low red blood cell count and is often caused by bleeding in the GI tract.

Stages:

For other types of GI tumors, the most common staging tool used is called the TNM system. TNM is an abbreviation for tumor (T), node (N), and metastasis (M). However, the use of the TNM system for GIST is not required. Instead, doctors look at different factors to determine a patient’s prognosis and the specific risk of how aggressive an individual tumor will be. Specifically, doctors want to figure out how quickly the GIST may grow and the chance the tumor will come back, or recur, after surgery.

Doctors commonly use the factors listed below to determine how aggressive a GIST that has been removed could be:

• The size of the tumor
• The mitotic count, which describes the number of dividing cells
• The location where the tumor started

A GIST that has spread to distant areas of the body is considered higher risk because it has a greater likelihood of coming back, called recurrent GIST.

 

The major salivary glands are on each side of the face and below the tongue. Several important nerves and other structures run through or near salivary glands and can be affected by salivary tumors.

Possible signs and symptoms of salivary gland cancer include:

• A lump or swelling in your mouth, cheek, jaw, or neck
• Pain in your mouth, cheek, jaw, ear, or neck that does not go away
• A difference between the size and/or shape of the left and right sides of your face or neck
• Numbness in part of your face
• Weakness of the muscles on one side of your face
• Trouble opening your mouth widely
• Fluid draining from an ear
• Trouble swallowing

A risk factor is anything that affects your chance of getting a disease such as cancer. Different cancers have different risk factors. Some risk factors, like smoking, can be changed. Others, like a person’s age or family history, can’t be changed.

But having a risk factor, or even many risk factors, does not mean that you will get the disease. And many people who get the disease may have few or no known risk factors.

A few risk factors are known to make a person more likely to develop salivary gland cancer.

Older age

The risk of salivary gland goes up as people get older.

Male gender

Salivary gland cancers are more common in men than in women.

Radiation exposure

Radiation treatment to the head and neck area for other medical reasons increases your risk of salivary gland cancer.

Workplace exposure to certain radioactive substances may also increase the risk of salivary gland cancer.

Family history

Very rarely, members of some families seem to have a higher than usual risk of developing salivary gland cancers. But most people who get salivary gland cancer do not have a family history of this disease.

Other possible risk factors

Certain workplace exposures

Some studies have suggested that people who work with certain metals (nickel alloy dust) or minerals (silica dust), and people who work in asbestos mining, plumbing, rubber products manufacturing, and some types of woodworking may be at increased risk for salivary gland cancer, but these links are not certain. The rarity of these cancers makes this hard to study.

Tobacco and alcohol use

Tobacco and alcohol can increase the risk for several cancers of the head and neck area, but they have not been strongly linked to salivary gland cancers in most studies.

Diet

Some studies have found that a diet low in vegetables and high in animal fat may increase the risk of salivary gland cancer, but more research is needed to confirm this possible link.

Cell phone use

One study has suggested an increased risk of parotid gland tumors among heavy cell phone users. In this study, most of the tumors seen were benign (not cancer). Other studies looking at this issue have not found such a link. Research in this area is still in progress.

If you’ve been diagnosed with salivary gland cancer, your cancer care team will discuss your treatment options with you. It’s important to weigh the benefits of each treatment option against the possible risks and side effects.

Which treatments are used for salivary gland cancer?

Common treatment options for salivary gland cancer include:

• Surgery
• Radiation therapy
• Chemotherapy

Vulvodynia is a burning, stinging but often unexplained pain affecting the skin around the vagina, or the vulva.

Although the condition is persistent and without an obvious cause, there are steps which can be taken to help relieve the discomfort.

Vulvodynia that is always present or comes on without a trigger is called unprovoked vulvodynia. If the pain starts when the vulva is touched, such as during sex or when changing a tampon, doctors call this provoked vulvodynia.

Vulvodynia cannot be transmitted during sex and is not a sign of a more serious condition, such as cancer.

Vestibulodynia is a related condition where pain affects the vestibule, which is the entrance to the vagina.

Types of vulvodynia

Vulvodynia affects the vulva which is the external female genital organs. This includes the labia, clitoris and vaginal opening.

The two main types of vulvodynia are:

• Generalised vulvodynia which is pain in different areas of the vulva which occurs at different times. Vulvar pain may be constant or occasional. It may or may not be prompted by touch or pressure but this may make the pain worse.
• Vestibulodynia is pain in the vestibule which is the entrance to the vagina. Often a burning sensation, this type of vulvar pain comes on during or after touch or pressure such as during sexual intercourse.

Possible causes of vulvodynia

Doctors do not know what causes vulvodynia. There is no evidence that infections, such as sexually transmitted infections, cause it.

Researchers are trying to find the causes of vulvodynia. These may include:

• Nerve injury or irritation
• Abnormal response in vulvar cells to an infection or trauma
• Genetic factors that make the vulva respond poorly to chronic inflammation
• Hypersensitivity to yeast infections
• Muscle spasms
• Allergies or irritation to chemicals or other substances
• Hormonal changes
• History of sexual abuse
• Frequent antibiotic use

What is carpal tunnel syndrome?

Carpal tunnel syndrome is numbness, tingling, weakness, and other problems in your hand because of pressure on the median nerve in your wrist.

The median nerve and several tendons run from your forearm to your hand through a small space in your wrist called the carpal tunnel . The median nerve controls movement and feeling in your thumb and first three fingers (not your little finger).

What causes carpal tunnel syndrome?

Pressure on the median nerve causes carpal tunnel syndrome. This pressure can come from swelling or anything that makes the carpal tunnel smaller. Many things can cause this swelling, including:

• Illnesses such as hypothyroidism, rheumatoid arthritis, and diabetes.
• Making the same hand movements over and over, especially if the wrist is bent down (your hands lower than your wrists), or making the same wrist movements over and over.
• Pregnancy.

Causes

Carpal tunnel syndrome is caused by pressure on the median nerve.

The median nerve runs from your forearm through a passageway in your wrist (carpal tunnel) to your hand. It provides sensation to the palm side of your thumb and fingers, except the little finger. It also provides nerve signals to move the muscles around the base of your thumb (motor function).

Anything that squeezes or irritates the median nerve in the carpal tunnel space may lead to carpal tunnel syndrome. A wrist fracture can narrow the carpal tunnel and irritate the nerve, as can the swelling and inflammation resulting from rheumatoid arthritis.

There is no single cause in many cases. It may be that a combination of risk factors contributes to the development of the condition.

Risk factors

A number of factors have been associated with carpal tunnel syndrome. Although they may not directly cause carpal tunnel syndrome, they may increase your chances of developing or aggravating median nerve damage. These include:

• Anatomic factors. A wrist fracture or dislocation, or arthritis that deforms the small bones in the wrist, can alter the space within the carpal tunnel and put pressure on the median nerve.People with smaller carpal tunnels may be more likely to have carpal tunnel syndrome.
• Sex. Carpal tunnel syndrome is generally more common in women. This may be because the carpal tunnel area is relatively smaller in women than in men.Women who have carpal tunnel syndrome may also have smaller carpal tunnels than women who don’t have the condition.
• Nerve-damaging conditions. Some chronic illnesses, such as diabetes, increase your risk of nerve damage, including damage to your median nerve.
• Inflammatory conditions. Illnesses that are characterized by inflammation, such as rheumatoid arthritis, can affect the lining around the tendons in your wrist and put pressure on your median nerve.
• Obesity. Being obese is a significant risk factor for carpal tunnel syndrome.
• Alterations in the balance of body fluids. Fluid retention may increase the pressure within your carpal tunnel, irritating the median nerve. This is common during pregnancy and menopause. Carpal tunnel syndrome associated with pregnancy generally resolves on its own after pregnancy.
• Other medical conditions. Certain conditions, such as menopause, obesity, thyroid disorders and kidney failure, may increase your chances of carpal tunnel syndrome.
• Workplace factors. It’s possible that working with vibrating tools or on an assembly line that requires prolonged or repetitive flexing of the wrist may create harmful pressure on the median nerve or worsen existing nerve damage.However, the scientific evidence is conflicting and these factors haven’t been established as direct causes of carpal tunnel syndrome.Several studies have evaluated whether there is an association between computer use and carpal tunnel syndrome. However, there has not been enough quality and consistent evidence to support extensive computer use as a risk factor for carpal tunnel syndrome, although it may cause a different form of hand pain.

Prevention

There are no proven strategies to prevent carpal tunnel syndrome, but you can minimize stress on your hands and wrists with these methods:

• Reduce your force and relax your grip. If your work involves a cash register or keyboard, for instance, hit the keys softly. For prolonged handwriting, use a big pen with an oversized, soft grip adapter and free-flowing ink.
• Take frequent breaks. Gently stretch and bend hands and wrists periodically. Alternate tasks when possible. This is especially important if you use equipment that vibrates or that requires you to exert a great amount of force.
• Watch your form. Avoid bending your wrist all the way up or down. A relaxed middle position is best. Keep your keyboard at elbow height or slightly lower.
• Improve your posture. Incorrect posture rolls shoulders forward, shortening your neck and shoulder muscles and compressing nerves in your neck. This can affect your wrists, fingers and hands.
• Change your computer mouse. Make sure that your computer mouse is comfortable and doesn’t strain your wrist.
• Keep your hands warm. You’re more likely to develop hand pain and stiffness if you work in a cold environment. If you can’t control the temperature at work, put on fingerless gloves that keep your hands and wrists warm.